Business Events Management

Introduction The science of event management has become a necessity in today’s business world. Since events are occasional, proper planning is important to ensure that an event is successful. Although some of the plans are overridden by occurrences during the actual event, planned events are better in relation to the impromptu ones. Events management involves various stages of planning.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Business Events Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, various resources are necessary for different events. In addition, events require a certain degree of leadership skills that are necessary for the implementation of the event. Human beings require a certain level of control. Therefore, events managers have a duty to co-ordinate, organise, and develop working teams. Proper, clear, and concise communication is imperative in events management. Constant communication between ev ents managers and clients before, during, and after the event is important. Events managers are therefore charged with the responsibility of installing proper communication systems throughout the process. This paper discusses business events management in the modern business environment. Importance of Planning Planning is an important skill in evens management. Planning is carried out in various stages during events management. The importance of planning is to ensure that the management is not caught up by eventualities during the actual event. According to Brenner (2009, p.26), with a good plan, the management team is able to respond quickly to various occurrences. A well-developed and authenticated plan will enable the event management team to ensure better satisfaction of customers’ needs. Various resources that are necessary for a particular even are also delivered in time. The delays that are witnessed in most of the events are therefore eliminated through proper plannin g. The team is not caught unaware by various demands from customers. A good plan enables managers to foresee the whole idea in a particular event. It is from such a plan that the management team carries out a systematic implementation of the program. De Snoo, van Wezel, Wortmann, and Gaalman (2011, p. 2101) confirm that plans act as a reference during the actual event. For instance, managers can use it as a checklist for various requirements. Planning will also save time and money that events take. Time is an important factor in events management. A good plan enables planners to allocate a specific amount of time to particular portions of events. This ensures that there is no procrastination and/or mix up of events. A good plan gives every portion of the event ample and adequate time. Such a program enables completion of all components of the event with little or no rush.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper wit h 15% OFF Learn More Stages of Planning and the required Resources Planning of events involves various stages. The first stage of events planning is the pre-planning meeting. This meeting enables events managers to introduce all stakeholders to be involved in the process. The pre-planning stage also enables the team to set rules and/or share roles and responsibilities. The team also gets an opportunity to know the members and to have them committed to the process. De Snoo, van Wezel, Wortmann, and Gaalman (2011, p. 2101) reveal how event managers also get an opportunity to match every members’ skills with an interest. The second step is the setting of objectives. Events management team meets to set the objectives of the whole program. Objectives should be explicit, quantifiable, satisfying, practical, and time specific. The other step is setting up the project, which involves the allocation of timelines and responsibilities. At this stage, the scope of the program is outlined and broken down. Job subdivision and elaboration to the individual employees takes place at this stage. The next step in event management is risk management. Makda and Bayat (2012, p.62) argue that the team have to assess the expected risks in the whole process. Risk mitigation measures are discussed and set up. The next step is the monitoring of the process. Monitoring of the progress of events is a continuous process. Soteriades and Dimou (2011, p.371) show how a continuous assessment ensures that the time limits that were set during the initial stages are met. It is through the assessment that the management is able to work well with the providers, for example suppliers. It is also important to monitor the progress of events in order to make changes in case of failures. The next step involves organisation of the actual event. At this stage, stakeholders are counter checked in the actual implementation of activities. Every stakeholder is also monitored to ensure full imp lementation of the project. The other step is the implementation of the event. At this stage, the actual activity is implemented. The event is run and the management supervises every step. According to Brenner (2009, p.26), it is important to respect the needs and instructions of the client. Finally, the event management process is evaluated through a systematic assessment. The manager assesses the implementers, with the feedback being used to improve the future process. Leadership Skills and Actions to Administer an Event Events management requires certain leadership skills to implement. The event manager must be able to plan for the whole event. According to Soteriades and Dimou (2011, p.371), planning involves forecasting, estimation, and implementation of the budget. Organisational skills are also required for one to be able to control and/or move the stakeholders. In an events management process, teamwork is important.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Busi ness Events Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The leader must be able to show leadership to employees. Supervisory skills are also important. Events managers should be able to supervise their staff members to ensure that they motivate them towards achieving their dreams. How to Organise and Develop a Team Team building is important in events management. Leaders must ensure that they build working teams and that the teams are working together. Project leaders must guide their teams towards working together for the success of the event. Teams are built through various steps. The project manager begins by establishing common objectives. During the establishment of common objectives, all people involved in the event come agree on what they want to achieve together with how they will do so. Team developers also train team members. During this training, members are furnished with certain important skills that are necessary for the specific events that they are to manage. For example, if the event is cultural, team members are taught various cultural beliefs that they must observe in the event. In some communities, some members of the community are not permitted to consume some parts of animal meat. The team members must therefore be keen when organising the menu for the event. For example, they are taught to separate certain parts of animal meat for particular people. In some instances, training of team members involves incorporation of clients or their representatives. In fact, if the organisation is planning for a local government event, it has to train its team members certain rules that must be observed during the event. The next step is the provision of the team with constant communication. For a project developer to ensure that he or she comes up with a good team, he or she must ensure proper communication. Makda and Bayat (2012, p.62) observe that the developers have to plan and organise for clear, co ncise, accurate, and purposeful communication. At all times, the team members must be furnished with adequate information about the event. The team is also trained to be enthusiastic. At this point, the team builder is also supposed to be very enthusiastic. Energy and vigour enable the team to work better. Team members develop a feeling that other team members are also working towards achieving a similar goal. All facets of the team must work together. For example, there should be equal participation by all members.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Team building also undertakes the execution of the initial plan as agreed. The team is charged with the authority to implement the event management plan. According to Richardson and Taylor (2012, p.475), every member of the execution team must clearly understand the execution plan. Proper understanding of the whole picture is important at this stage. An individual team member should be able to correct his or her fellow employees in the process of executing the program. The team builder also recognises the achievements of individual team members. Recognition and reward are crucial in motivating team members to repeat a certain good behaviour. In the same way, project managers should also punish any bad behaviour as a way of discouraging it. Punishment is also a way of rewarding employees. For example, if a team member is punished through salary deductions, he or she will ensure that the behaviour is not repeated. Team builders are also supposed to keep on evaluating the success and f ailures of the team concessionary. Constant evaluation of the team ensures that the initial plan is implemented in every step. Evaluation will also enable the project developer to correct any errors that may happen during the process of implementation. Importance of Team Coordination and Communication There is a need to have constant coordination of the team and its activities to ensure uniformity and coherence. During the coordination of team activities, communication becomes paramount. Proper coordination of the team ensures that there are minimal chances for confusion. Team members are also united in the performance of their duties when there is clear and constant communication. It is important for the team developers and managers to provide avenues for communication. Soteriades and Dimou (2011, p.371) affirm that every team member should be given an opportunity to voice his or her opinions towards the achievement of the plan. Communication ensures that there are less or no confl icts between team members and/or between the teams and the management. Certain levels of autonomy are also enhanced when there are high levels of communication flow. It is through communication that openness is promoted. Team members can share ideas and/or consult each other in case of errors or mistakes. Team members should also be able to communicate properly to clients during the implementation of the event program. Event involves people of a different nature or character. For example, some people are easily angered. Others are peaceful while others are troublemakers. It is also possible that some visitors turn arrogant at service providers in some events such as cultural and individual events. In such cases, team members should be patient enough to communicate well and even to manage any crisis that may arise. According to Kose, Argan, and Argan (2011, p.2), chances of misunderstanding are also minimised through proper communication. Communication enhances trust between team mem bers and/or between the event managers and the client. Openness is a key driver of proper communication. When there is openness, anxiety is reduced even in case of a crisis. The client, team members, and even visitors are able to understand any eventuality when there is clear communication. Communication Systems for Managing and Monitoring an Event Establishment of proper communication systems during the process of events management is important. According to Kose, Argan, and Argan (2011, p.2), every adopted communication system should be clear and easily understood by the target audience. In most cases, messages are misinterpreted, thus leading to confusion among team members. Understanding of the target audience is important in ensuing clarity and proper interpretation of messages. Encoding of messages relies on the understanding of the audience. With a clear understanding of the recipient of the message, the encoder is able to package the information in a way that the recipient c an easily decode the message. Communication is said to have taken place if the intention of the sender is correctly interpreted. Events managers can easily communicate different information to different stakeholders using various modes of communication. For example, Richardson and Taylor (2012, p.471) observe that, when communicating to internal publics, event managers can use a verbal mode of communication. For example, the manager and supervisors can call for meetings and/or deliver the message orally. These can be one on one meeting with individual team members or a meeting with the whole team. It is easy to communicate orally with internal publics. Internal memos are also a good means of communication. The events manager writes the memo and posts it on the notice boards. The memos can also be delivered to the individual employees. Memos are simple and clear. Hence, team members can be able to understand the message directly without the need for interpretation. The firm can also make use of intranets and the internet. Intranets are wire communications that are installed to work within the organisation. Managers can therefore use this system to communicate with the internal publics. For example, a manager can call the supervisors directly on the intranets. Intranets ensure less exaggerations since messages are conveyed directly to recipients. Messages are not mediated. Hence, it is easier to eliminate noise and interference. On the other hand, the project managers can communicate to the external publics through several ways. For example, they can use e-mails, videoconferencing, letters, television, and radio advertisements. Various factors are considered when choosing the mode of communication. In fact, if the project manager wants to use a certain mode of communication, he or she must consider the frequency, the reach, and the speed. A good communication system will have people, communication devices, and the environment. All these facets are made to work t ogether in the project management. Conclusion Project managers require a high level of skills in administering and coordinating the process. Team building skills are important since team members have to work together for the success of the events. Managers have to ensure a clear and an easy-to-understand communication strategy to enhance the success events. Events manager are also supposed to choose a communication system that is frequent, speedy, and with a wide reach. Internal communication systems such as intranets and the internet are important. The project managers can also use televisions, radios, and print media to reach the external publics. References Brenner, K 2009, ‘Life-Event Segmenting Offers Optimisation of Benefit Effectiveness’, Journal of Financial Service Professionals, vol. 63 no. 3, pp. 26-29. De Snoo, C, van Wezel, W, Wortmann, J Gaalman, C 2011, ‘Coordination activities of human planners during rescheduling: case analysis and event handling procedure’, International Journal of Production Research, vol. 49 no.7, pp. 2101-2122. Kose, H, Argan, T Argan, M 2011, ‘Special event management and event marketing: A case study of TKBL all star 2011 in Turkey’, Journal of Management Marketing Research, vol. 8 no. 1, pp.1-11. Makda, T Bayat, S 2012, ‘Risk Management In Events In South Africa By 2010 And Beyond’, Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, vol. 3 no. 11, pp. 62-85. Richardson, A Taylor, G 2012, ‘Understanding Input Events: A Model of Employees’ Responses to Requests for Their Input’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 37 no. 3, pp. 471-491. Soteriades, D Dimou, I 2011, ‘Special Events: A Framework for Efficient Management’, Journal of Hospitality Marketing Management, vol. 20 no, 3/4, pp.329-346. This essay on Business Events Management was written and submitted by user Harlow Hebert to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Aaron Burr

Aaron Burr Burr, Aaron (1756-1836), third vice president of the United States (1801-5). Burr was born in Newark, New Jersey, on February 6, 1756, and educated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), of which his father had been president. He joined the Continental Army in 1775 and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Retiring in 1779 because of ill health, he was admitted to the bar in New York City in 1782 and achieved a reputation as one of the foremost lawyers of that city. Burr was appointed attorney general of New York in 1789 and served as U.S. senator from 1791 to 1797. He was a leader of the old Republican Party, which later became the Democratic-Republican Party, a position that brought Burr into conflict with his professional rival, the Federalist leader Alexander Hamilton. In the presidential election of 1800 Burr ran with the Republican candidate Thomas Jefferson. Each received the same number of votes in the electoral college, and, according to Article II, Section 2, of the U.S. Constitution, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, which chose Jefferson as president and Burr vice president. In 1804 Burr failed to win renomination as vice president and also failed to win the governorship of New York State because of the forceful opposition of Hamilton. Hamilton for years had attacked Burr publicly and privately, and Burr eventually challenged him to a duel. They fought in Weehawken, New Jersey, on July 11, 1804. Hamilton was killed, and Burr was discredited. He then became involved in a scheme that made his political recovery hopeless. The so-called Burr conspiracy still remains a mystery, because no one knows what Burr's intentions were. He purchased land in the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and apparently planned to invade Spa nish territory if, as expected, war developed between Spain and the U.S. His plan, allegedly, was either to establish a separate republic in the Sout... Free Essays on Aaron Burr Free Essays on Aaron Burr Aaron Burr Burr, Aaron (1756-1836), third vice president of the United States (1801-5). Burr was born in Newark, New Jersey, on February 6, 1756, and educated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), of which his father had been president. He joined the Continental Army in 1775 and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Retiring in 1779 because of ill health, he was admitted to the bar in New York City in 1782 and achieved a reputation as one of the foremost lawyers of that city. Burr was appointed attorney general of New York in 1789 and served as U.S. senator from 1791 to 1797. He was a leader of the old Republican Party, which later became the Democratic-Republican Party, a position that brought Burr into conflict with his professional rival, the Federalist leader Alexander Hamilton. In the presidential election of 1800 Burr ran with the Republican candidate Thomas Jefferson. Each received the same number of votes in the electoral college, and, according to Article II, Section 2, of the U.S. Constitution, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, which chose Jefferson as president and Burr vice president. In 1804 Burr failed to win renomination as vice president and also failed to win the governorship of New York State because of the forceful opposition of Hamilton. Hamilton for years had attacked Burr publicly and privately, and Burr eventually challenged him to a duel. They fought in Weehawken, New Jersey, on July 11, 1804. Hamilton was killed, and Burr was discredited. He then became involved in a scheme that made his political recovery hopeless. The so-called Burr conspiracy still remains a mystery, because no one knows what Burr's intentions were. He purchased land in the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and apparently planned to invade Sp anish territory if, as expected, war developed between Spain and the U.S. His plan, allegedly, was either to establish a separate republic in the Sout...

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Privacy and Confidentiality of Client Health Information Research Paper

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Medium Of Defamation In The Cyberspace Media Essay

Medium Of Defamation In The Cyberspace Media Essay Defamation is potentially one of the largest areas of law which will be affected by the internet revolution as it deals, quite simply, with communication between people  [1]  . The internet provides a new means to facilitate this communication and so is an ideal forum for free speech, a practice which can often lead to vituperative and contumelious language  [2]  . A communication is defamatory if it tends so to harm the reputation of another as to lower him in the estimation of the community or to deter third persons from associating or dealing with him.  [3]   With the aim to injure the reputation of the victim and in particular to cause him (or her) to be regarded with feelings of hatred, contempt, ridicule, fear, dislike or disesteem is part of the objective of the defamation  [4]  . The defamer or the defendant can be taken into custody for his/her action if the plaintiff thinks that the information given in the cyberspace is false, inappropriate and resulting lowering down the plaintiff reputation. Depending on different countries and regions, the punishment for defamation in the cyberspace is varies due to its law. Some country for example Brunei can take 5 years prisons for the punishment. It is not only the author or originator of a defamatory statement that may be liable for the publication of that statement; rather, defamation law ensures that anyone who plays a significant role in the act of republication or redistribution of defamatory message will be held responsible for that message  [5]  . This objective of this paper is to determine jurisdiction on the regional cases of defamation in Brunei and Malaysia. Other than that, this paper also explains medium of defamation in the cyberspace, the effects of the defamation to the victim, the punishment to the defamer and the court action with the case. BRUNEI AND MALAYSIA DEFAMATION LAW Both Brunei and Malaysia defamation law are based on the English Common Law  [6]  . MALAYSIA DEFAMATION LAW Malaysia Defamation Act are the Malaysian Defamation Act 1957 for civil cases and the Penal Code of Malaysia Section 499 Section 503 for criminal cases  [7]  . This law does not define defamation. It recognized two forms of defamation only that is libel and slander. There are distinct differences of these two forms of defamation. The difference lies in the means or medium by which the defamatory material is communicated. It used to be a fundamental distinction that between a written or printed word which is concludes as libel and spoken words which are considered as slander. Both libel and slander are civil and criminal offences. Thus, a person who is guilty of libel or slander may be sued in court, and also face jail sentence. In civil cases, the person so defamed will normally sue the maker of the defamatory words for compensation. The amount of the compensation depends on the damage caused to the reputation of the person suing. In criminal cases, the punishment for defamation is a jail sentence for a maximum of two years, or a fine, or a combination of a jail sentence and a fine [Section 500-502 Penal Code]. But, nowadays the general view of libel is whether the publication is in a permanent form, in other forms it is a slander. Defamation in a permanent forms and is usually visible to the eye, such as items in writing, email, pictures, statutes or effigies. Section 3 of the Defamation Act 1957 stated that broadcasting of words by means of radio communication shall be treated as communication in a permanent form. BRUNEI DEFAMATION LAW The Defamation Act of Brunei Darussalam, which was revised in 2000, punishes libel or slander by means of broadcasting, telecommunication or publication by newspaper.  [8]  Like Malaysia, the laws also governing both libel and slander are identical. Bloggers should also be aware that under the Brunei Defamation Act, a blog post for the purpose of the law of libel and slander, may be considered the equivalent to broadcasting of words by means of telecommunication and as such will be treated as publication. Even though the defamatory content on the Internet can be deleted, there is a possibility that the post can be recovered through a cache, and thus can be admitted into evidence  [9]  . Though there has not been any major case of litigation concerning blogs and bloggers in Brunei, the neighboring countries of Malaysia and Singapore have had cases which have resulted in imprisonment for comments made by bloggers  [10]  . Under Section 500 of Bruneis Penal Code, whoever defames another can be imprisoned for a term of up to 5 years and a fine  [11]  . MEDIUM OF DEFAMATION IN THE CYBERSPACE Based on Lilian Edwards study, she define that there are at least four distinct sites where defamation may occur in the cyberspace that can usefully be separated out, as to some extent they raise distinct problems  [12]  . One to one email messages Compared to the traditional written mail (via postal), transmission of email is virtually instantaneous and usually, once sent, is irrevocable. As a result, email correspondence is often in substance more like spoken conversation than written interaction  [13]  . Interaction and communication between two are becoming no limitless which can turn out to be legally actionable. Mailing List The format of an electronic mailing list is that various parties subscribe by email to the list, which is administered by some central host. The subject of discussion of the list may be anything from Internet law to real ale to homosexual fantasies. Usually the list is set up so that, by default, any email message sent by any one subscriber to the list is bounced or exploded out to every other subscriber. Carelessness can lead to the user think they reply only to the maker but actually the user sends their reply to the every member in the list. The embarrassment factor can be considerable, particularly where the members of the list form a small professional community within which the professional reputation of the person defamed can be severely damaged  [14]  . Newsgroup Newsgroups are discussion forum which are made up of comments from their subscribers, sorted by subject matter. All it takes is to subscribe and post comments to the newsgroup  [15]  . Collectively, the newsgroups available to Internet users are sometimes known as the Usenet  [16]  . There are something like 14,000 Usenet newsgroups subscribed to en masse by millions of subscribers, located in every country where there is Internet access. As a result, any comment posted to a Usenet newsgroup is virtually guaranteed to be published, and read, within days if not hours, in many hundreds of national jurisdictions. As can be imagined, the volume of material published in these forums is enormous one estimate is that around 4 million articles are available at any particular time  [17]  . Therefore, the probability of defamation cases in the newsgroup is higher. The World Wide Web Like newsgroups, Web sites can be accessed and read in multiple jurisdictions, and they therefore share many of the problems of transnational publication discussed above. But perhaps the major unique problem with the Web is how far it allows any individual to mimic traditional publishing at very low cost. Home pages can be set up which do a good job of looking like electronic journals or glossy magazines and which can be extremely attractive, with good design and graphic content  [18]  . However many of the parties setting up Web sites often fans of popular music or TV programmes, students, pressure groups, or amateur associations are not already hard copy or traditional publishers, have no knowledge of the law of defamation or libel, and may well find themselves publishing defamatory statements without fully appreciating their potential liability  [19]  . LIABILITY OF INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS The key role of ISPs is to provide access to the Internet for their subscribers. This access includes allowing subscribers both to read and write to Usenet newsgroups and to surf the Web. ISPs also sometimes host local discussion forum and almost invariably agree to act as physical hosts to Web pages set up by their subscribers (generally to a maximum storage of a few megabytes)  [20]  . In all these cases, the ISP runs the risk of being regarded as the publisher of libelous remarks, originated by another person, but published by them in one of these forums. As per mention before, any repetition or re-publication of a defamatory statement is in itself actionable. Action is possible against all intervening persons who are responsible for repeating, publishing or otherwise circulating the defamation  [21]  . Therefore, any republish or repeating, the victim can choose whether to sue original defamer or the re-publisher or both and in many cases, ISP were usually being sued due to the money issue rather than suing the original author. HOW IS DEFAMATION PUNISHED Defamation is usually a civil offence, although it can be a criminal matter under special circumstances.  [22]   CIVIL DEFAMATION Most complaints of defamation are dealt with under civil law. That means that cases go to a civil court and are punished by awarding money (called damages) against the person found to have committed the offence, usually called the defendant. If someone takes you to court for defamation, they will be the plaintiff, you will be the defendant.  [23]   In civil defamation, the principle is the same as for someone who has been physically injured as a result of someone elses actions, either through carelessness or a planned attack. The injured person may take the other person (or people) to court. If successful, the injured person will be awarded a sum of money as compensation. This money will be paid by the person who did the damage.  [24]   DAMAGES There are several kinds of damages a court can award, either separately or together.  [25]   General or Compensatory damages which a court may award for a persons loss of reputation, shame or hurt feelings. The payment to the plaintiff may be at small amount of money. Special damages compensate for any loss of business or earnings the plaintiff may have suffered as a result of the defamation. These could also include any money the plaintiff has spent as a result of the defamation, for example in sending letters to clients denying the allegations. Aggravated damages this can be awarded if the court thinks that the defamation was deliberate, possibly out of ill-will or any other improper motive (usually referred to as malice, which we discussed earlier). Punitive or Exemplary damages which may sometimes be awarded if the defamation is so extreme that the court feels the need to punish you or warn other journalists against similar conduct. Damages are usually large in the case of media organisations because the courts think that they can pay more for their mistakes than individuals can. CRIMINAL DEFAMATION Defamation can also be a criminal offence, which means that those found guilty could be fined or sent to prison or both. This is much less common than civil defamation.  [26]   A charge of criminal defamation can be brought if the words, pictures or gestures use provoke resulting riots, mob violence or other breaches of the public peace. For this reason, the prosecution does not have to prove publication to a third party. It is enough that the person the defendent are referring to hears the words (or sees the gestures) and reacts violently. However, unlike civil defamation, the prosecution will have to prove that the words complained of were malicious. In civil defamation the words may be malicious, but in criminal defamation they must be.  [27]   SOCIAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES Social media technologies are part of the cyberspace. It include blogs, picture sharing, email, instant messaging, vlogs and other medium that allow to be democratically interactive in ways unlike radio, television, or highly edited letters pages of newspapers and magazine. Below is some case law and summaries that happen in Brunei and Malaysia which relate with defamation in cyberspace. Facebook is a popular free social networking website that allows registered users to create profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep in touch with friends, family and colleague  [28]  . One recent and well-known case in Brunei with regards to Facebook Upload is Adi Adip  [29]  case where the defendant had uploaded his ex-girlfriends (Miss X) obscene picture and video clip on the Facebook. The reason for his action is to insult Miss Xs modesty as well as to get her attention after she had broken off her relationship with the defendant. The plaintiff report this issue to the police once she discovered the Facebook account is under her name, managed by the defendant and containing the obscene pictures and video clips involving herself. The court ordered for the iPhone used by the defendant to be forfeited and all photos and videos related to the case was seized and disposed of, including copies, immediately. This is one case example from Brunei of the defamation in cyberspace. Other than that, the defendant was send to jail for 10 months. In Malaysia, over the past years, Malaysians have been increasingly engaged in virtual communities and online interactions. Some have led to positive outcomes, but some of these virtual arenas have been exploited, tarnishing the true potential of the Internet  [30]  . In case of Jeff Ooi and Rocky Bru  [31]  case, this is the first time in Malaysia that a prominent media organization filed a suit against bloggers. Jeff Oois Screenshot become a topic of debate when he retracted all his libelous allegations in weblog against the New Straits Times. Raja Petra Kamaruddin is a Malaysian editor known for running Malaysia Today website. He published a series of commentary article on Malaysia politics in the website. There are a lot of cases relate to him which include both Civil and Criminal offences. Some of his cases are: Nordin Kardi UUM v RPK (2008) Lt-Col Aziz Buyong Lt-Col Norhayati Hassan v RPK (2008) Datuk Muhammad Shafee Abdullah v RPK (2008) Public Prosecutor v RPK (2008) Due to large number of cases he was being suit, he was arrested by the authorities. He was detained under the Internal Security Act on 12th September 2008 under section 73, 60 days detention by Police Officer and again on 24th September 2008, under section 8(1) which he was detained for 2 years by the Minister. CONCLUSION As mention earlier in this paper, the objective of this paper is to determine jurisdiction on the regional cases of defamation in Brunei and Malaysia. This paper also explains medium of defamation in the cyberspace, the effects of the defamation to the victim, the punishment to the defamer and the court action with the case. Weve found that there are 4 distinct medium of defamation in the cyberspace one to one email messages, mailing list, newsgroup and the World Wide Web  [32]  . As we know, defamation can result to injure the reputation of the victim and in particular to cause him (or her) to be regarded with feelings of hatred, contempt, ridicule, fear, dislike or disesteem.

Bryophyte And Pteropyte Life Cycles :: essays research papers

Although Bryophytes and Pterophytes are both plant divisions with a common ancestor, they have little in common. While Bryophytes (mosses) are generally nonvascular and very short in height, Pterophytes (ferns) are vascular plants that usually grow much taller than mosses. While the dominant generation in mosses is the gametophyte, ferns exhibit the sporophyte generation. The details of their alternations of generation vary as well, although both have diploid and haploid stages. Alteration of generations is defined as a life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte. Meiosis in mosses produces haploid spores. This process occurs in a sporangium, a capsule in fungi and plants in which meiosis takes place and haploid spores develop. After fertilization, the sporophyte zygote grows out of the parent gametophyte. At the end of this stalk is the sporangium. Meiosis occurs and the haploid spores disperse. In ferns, the mature sporophyte (2N) has small spots on the undersides of its leaves. These are clusters of the Pterophyte sporangia, called sori. As in mosses, meiosis occurs in the sporangia, which then release spores, continuing the cycle. Mitosis in Bryophytes begins germination, or growth. It directly follows meiosis. As mitotic division continues, protonemata (1N) are formed. They grow until they are mature gametophytes. In Pterophytes, mitosis occurs directly after fertilization. The zygote divides and grows until it peeks out of the parent gametophyte, then it matures until it can release its own spores. Mosses exhibit the embryophyte condition, which means their gametes develop with protective sheaths of cells. This was an adaptation that allowed plants to become hardier. Mosses have two sexes of gametangia; the male gametangium is called an antheridium, and the female is called an archegonium. Eggs are produced in the archegonium and sperm in the antheridium. In order for fertilization to take place, the sperm must swim through moisture to the archegonium. This is why mosses must live in damp environments to survive- they cannot reproduce without moisture. The zygote develops within the archegonial cavity. Ferns are usually homosporous as well (there is a single type of spore; the gametophyte is bisexual). In ferns, the archegonia and antheridia mature at different times, which means there is cross fertilization between gametophytes and thus more genetic variation. Sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia where the zygote develops. Like mosses, ferns also need a moist envir onment for fertilization to occur.